The Dao of Qoheleth
An Intertextual Reading of the Book of Ecclesiastes and the Daode Jing

Abstract of an article published in Jian Dao 5 (1996) 65–93.

Within the framework of a reader-oriented approach to intertextuality, biblical and Asian texts may profitably be read in terms of one another. Despite Western biblical critics' recognition of the importance of Chinese philosophical literature, however, Chinese and biblical wisdom texts have not often been read intertextually. An intertextual reading of the book of Ecclesiastes and the Daode Jing illustrates the value of such approaches. Laozi's perspectives on the inconstancy of all guiding discourses help to make sense of Qoheleth's confusion and cast his alleged "despair" in an altogether new light. Conversely, Qoheleth's conclusions provide an interesting and pertinent response to the questions raised by Laozi's critique of guiding discourses.

Notes

Daode Jing: With the sole exception of the Bible, the ancient Chinese text called the Daode Jing (sometimes Romanized as Tao Te Ching or something similar) has been more widely translated than any other text in the world. Its eighty-one short chapters contain many quotable lines, but the whole remains enigmatic. Most readings of the Daode Jing perceive in the book an esoteric or mystical discourse about an ineffable metaphysical absolute called Dao. On the other hand, strict attention to the context of ancient Chinese philosophy suggests that the Daode Jing articulates a critique of the absolutization of guiding conceptual discourses (dao). Recommended for introductory reading:

• Feng Gia-Fu and Jane English, trans. 1989. Tao Te Ching. New York: Vintage. A very readable translation. The introduction and notes by Jacob Needleman are of a strongly mystical-metaphysical character.
• Hansen, Chad. 1992. A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. A rather technical work, not really suitable for introductory reading, but the premiere statement of the reading of the Daode Jing adopted in "The Dao of Qoheleth."
• Welch, Holmes. 1965. Taoism: Parting of the Way. Rev. ed. Boston: Beacon. A nice introduction to Daoism, though heavily influenced by the mystical-metaphysical bent of post-Buddhist Chinese Daoism.

Ecclesiastes: The book of Ecclesiastes is one of the five Megilloth, read each year on the Sabbath during Sukkoth (the Feast of Tabernacles). In Jewish Bibles, Ecclesiastes appears among the Kethubim (Writings). In Christian Bibles, Ecclesiastes follows the book of Proverbs. In many ways the book is an enigma. One of its eminently quotable lines is, "Of the making of many texts there is no end" (12:12), and certainly many texts have been and continue to be produced that take the text we call Ecclesiastes as their topic. Recommended for introductory reading:

• Ogden, Graham. 1987. Qoheleth. Readings: A New Biblical Commentary. Sheffield: JSOT Press. Note the concluding excursus on the Chinese and biblical wisdom traditions.
• Whybray, R. N. 1989. Ecclesiastes. Old Testament Guides. Sheffield: JSOT Press.

Intertextuality: Since texts are instances of language use, no text can be wholly original. This implies that every text is a rewriting or prewriting of many other texts (whether a given author is aware of this or not). Texts thus occupy an "intertextual" space in which they "intersect" or "blend and clash" with one another in a wide variety of ways. Intertextuality names this condition, this fundamental interrelatedness of all texts. Intertextual reading explores the effects of this interrelatedness by reading texts into, against, or in terms of (the specific language varies among theorists) one another. Recommended for introductory reading:

• Fewell, Danna Nolan, ed. 1992. Reading Between Texts: Intertextuality and the Hebrew Bible. Literary Currents in Biblical Interpretation. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox. A collection of essays theorizing and practicing intertextual reading. Includes a very helpful introduction by Danna Nolan Fewell and glossary by Timothy K. Beal.

Laozi: Laozi (sometimes Romanized as Lao Tsu or something similar) is the putative author of the Daode Jing. According to tradition and legend, Laozi lived in China in the sixth century BCE. Growing disgusted with the societal decay around him, Laozi decided to ride off into the desert. But he was stopped by one Yin Hsi, a gatekeeper at the Han-ku pass, who begged him to write down his teachings before proceeding, whereupon Laozi wrote the Daode Jing. This is only one version of the legends about Laozi; they are many and varied. In about 100 BCE, a Chinese historian, Ssu-ma Ch'ien, tried to write a biography of Laozi but gave up in despair for lack of adequate and reliable source materials. The Daode Jing itself is sometimes called the Laozi, the literary work going by the name of its putative author. Recommended for introductory reading:

• Feng Gia-Fu and Jane English, trans. 1992. Tao Te Ching. New York: Vintage. See especially pp. vi-vii of Jacob Needleman's introduction.
• Welch, Holmes. 1965. Taoism: Parting of the Way. Rev. ed. Boston: Beacon. See especially pp. 1-3.

Qoheleth: The interpretive frame of the book of Ecclesiastes (1:1; 12:9-14) identifies the speaker in the monologue (1:2-12:8) as qoheleth. The word itself is somewhat mysterious. Because of its apparent kinship with the word qahal ("assembly"), qoheleth is often translated "teacher" or "preacher." On the other hand, because of its obscurity, the word is often simply used as if it were a proper name. Ecclesiastes, the name of the book in English Bibles, is based on Latin traditions. In the Hebrew linguistic tradition, Qoheleth is the name of the book as well as the speaker. Since the first line of the book identifies Qoheleth as "the son of David, king in Jerusalem," Qoheleth has often been identified with Solomon. Recommended for introductory reading:

• Ogden, Graham. 1987. Qoheleth. Readings: A New Biblical Commentary. Sheffield: JSOT Press. Note the concluding excursus on the Chinese and biblical wisdom traditions.
• Whybray, R. N. 1989. Ecclesiastes. Old Testament Guides. Sheffield: JSOT Press.

Reader-Oriented Criticism: Reader-oriented textual interpretation gives attention to the active roles that readers play in producing meaning with (n.b.: not "from") texts. The basic presupposition is that meaning does not reside in texts like an objects in containers, but is produced in the interactions between readers and texts in discrete acts of reading. Reader-oriented interpretation does not (or at least not inherently), though, license readers to produce just any meaning at all, willy-nilly, from texts. It does not demand conformity among readings, but does demand a kind of authenticity from readings, a demonstrable relationship between readings and texts. Recommended for introductory reading:

• The Bible and Culture Collective. 1995. The Postmodern Bible. New Haven: Yale University Press. See especially the chapter on reader-response criticism.
• Gunn, David M. and Danna Nolan Fewell. 1993. Narrative in the Hebrew Bible. Oxford Bible Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• McKenzie, Stephen L. and Stephen R. Haynes, eds. 1999. To Each Its Own Meaning: An Introduction to Biblical Criticisms and Their Application. Rev. ed. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox. See especially the chapters on narrative criticism, reader-response criticism, and reading the Bible ideologically.